For Italy, World War II ended in complete defeat. The finale actually came in September 1943. After the surrender, the northern and southern parts of Italy were occupied by Germany. Then the Italian resistance begins. During the liberation struggle against fascism in Italy, the system of political institutions was destroyed - the fascist party, the police, and the political police of the region were dissolved.
An important problem in post-war Italy was the question of the form of its state structure. The left parties were in favor of proclaiming a republic. The majority of the Christian Democratic Party delegates supported this form, but the liberal wing of the anti-fascist bloc was against it. - it advocated the preservation of the monarchy.
June 2, 1946 - referendum on the issue of government structure and elections to the constituent assembly. The supporters of the republic won. The three parties that will establish the assembly received the most votes: Christian Democratic Party, Isppe, Ikp.
Republican Constitution of 1947 The state and the Catholic Church are independent and sovereign in the sphere belonging to each of them. According to the constitution, the head of the Italian republic became the president (7-year term) at a joint meeting of the two chambers of parliament: the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. They must be created. Both chambers were elected by a pro-proportional system of representation by all adult citizens of both sexes. The restoration of the fascist party was prohibited. The new principle of the constitution is renunciation of war as a renunciation of encroachment on the freedom of other peoples. Italy was proclaimed a democratic republic based on labor (task: to eliminate obstacles of economic and social order that interfere with the development of personality and the participation of all workers in the political and social organizations of the country. The working day was also limited and equal pay for equal work was introduced, the right of workers to a weekly vacation, paid annual leave.
1947 was the year of a split in the Socialist Party (SP). The left wing separated from it; it is against cooperation with the communists. In May 1947, a government crisis ==) the creation of a one-party government of Christian Democrats led by de Gasperi. ( Italian statesman and politician, founder of the Christian Democratic Party. From 10 December 1945 to 17 August 1953 he was prime minister in eight successive Christian Democratic governments.)
Reasons for the success of the Christian Democratic Party: 1) the Christian Democratic Party acted with the support of the United States and the Vatican. 2) communists and socialists missed the moment for mobilization.
April 18, 1948 elections to the republican parliament. The People's Democratic Front gained 31%, the Communists lost more than 8.5% since they split in 1947. The Christian Democratic Party received 48.8%. votes. – gained dominance in parliament. Gasperi's government included representatives of the liberal and republican parties, but the direction of the general course depended on the Christian Democratic Party. The internal political situation in the country was tense. This is how an attempt was made on the life of the ICP General Secretary P. Tolyatti. The response to this was the CGIL general strike. She became an example of mass appeal. The Christian Democratic Party government has taken a course towards suppressing such protests by workers. IT BEGAN TO USE MOTORIZED POLICE UNITS AGAINST THEM. ==) massacres of 1949-1950 led to dozens of victims. The government also tried to limit democratic freedoms through laws on the press and trade unions, but these projects met with opposition.
In 1949, Pope Pius 12 gave an audience to de Gasperi, the political course of the Christian Democratic Party received the official blessing of the Vatican. The Pope soon announced the excommunication of communists, socialists, and those who would vote for them in elections. The imprint on the Christian Democratic Party was a violation of the principles of the republican constitution, which affirmed the secular nature of the Italian state. Church intervention in Italian political life
foreign policy: It should be noted that the active support that the Christian Democratic Party received from the ruling circles of the United States in the struggle to push aside left-wing parties and dominate the country outlined the orientation of the Christian Democratic Party's policy.
- June 1948 agreement between the United States and Italy to provide economic assistance to Italy under the Marshal's Plan. First, food products were imported into Italy, then the import of industrial equipment began. --) American economic assistance allowed Italy to overcome the dire consequences of the war. This also increased the penetration of American capital into the Italian economy.
- The Gasperi government obtained an invitation from the United States to invite Italy to join the countries that participated in the creation of NATO. ITALY HAS BEEN A MEMBER OF NATO SINCE ITS FOUNDING.
- 1950 signing of an agreement on mutual assistance for defense purposes (supply of American weapons to Italy).
==) this foreign policy caused condemnation from left-wing parties. protests against NATO were organized.
1951 agreement establishing the European Coal and Steel Community
an attempt to revise the electoral system and its failure. In 1953, the Christian Democratic Party put forward an electoral reform project. it assumed the transition of the distribution of mandates in proportion to the number of votes collected by each party to a system in which 50% of the votes plus at least 1 vote gave the party the right to 2/3 of parliamentary seats.
the draft of this law caused outrage among the democratic public. The Christian Democratic Party managed to get the law approved by parliament. but the left fought against him. in the elections of June 7, 1953, 40% voted for the HDP, and the rest - liberals, republicans and social democrats - 49% of voters. ==) the loss of the absolute majority of votes by the HDP and allied parties deprived the coalition of support.
Gasperi admitted defeat. he tried to formalize a one-party government, but it did not receive the confidence of parliament. de Gasperi was forced to resign and soon died.
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Transformation Plan 1945-1947 Economic development. Problem of the South. Political development of Italy. Political changes in Italy in the 90s.
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Transformations 1945-1947 At the end of April 1945, an uprising began in northern Italy, which led to the liberation of this part of the country even before the Allied troops arrived from the south. The most influential force in the area was the Italian Communist Party. She collaborated with the Italian Socialist Party and other anti-fascist forces. The Christian Democratic Party, created in 1944, also took part in the anti-fascist struggle. All fascist organizations were banned in the country. But among the backward part of the population and the remnants of the fascist forces, the conditions for the fascist movement remained. It was called neo-fascism, i.e. new fascism. Post-war Italy
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Transformations 1945-1947 In December 1945, a coalition government was formed in Italy, which included representatives of Christian Democrats, communists and socialists. It was headed by the leader of the Christian Democratic Party de Gasperi. On June 2, 1946, a referendum was held on the issue of the form of government. The supporters of the republic won. At the same time, elections to the Constituent Assembly were held. The Christian Democratic Party received the majority of votes, followed by the socialists and communists. But in May 1947, the communists were removed from the government. This was done under the influence of the United States in order to receive American financial assistance. Alcido de Gasperi
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Transformations 1945-1947 In 1947, a constitution was adopted. According to the constitution, the head of state is the president, elected by two houses of parliament (Chamber of Deputies and Senate). Both chambers are elected by proportional representation by all citizens. It was declared that private property was inviolable, but could be limited by law on the basis of its compensation. The Constitution proclaimed the fundamental rights of citizens, equal for men and women, which had not existed in Italy before. The Constitution also proclaimed the right to work. On the basis of the constitution, parliamentary elections were held in April 1948. The Christian Democratic Party won the elections, receiving 48% of the votes. The government was formed by de Gasperi. Italian Prime Minister A. de Gasperi speaks at a rally in Milan (April 1948)
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Economic development. The problem of the South. The Italian economy was gradually emerging from the post-war crisis. This was facilitated by pent-up demand from the population, the transfer of capital from military industries to civilian ones, and state support for ineffective but important industries for the entire country. In 1948, Italy received gratuitous aid from the United States under the Marshall Plan. Relatively stable internal political development in the 50s and the convenience of its geographical location attracted foreign capital to the country. Since 1957, having joined the EEC, Italy itself has expanded its penetration into foreign markets. A.Marshall
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Economic development. The problem of the South. The economic development of Italy was heterogeneous, which was expressed in the main regional models demonstrating a peculiar combination of large and small businesses and their interrelation:
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Economic development. The problem of the South. Realizing the constraining role of the backward South in the development of the entire country, the government took certain measures to reduce this backwardness. In the early 50s. The implementation of agrarian reform began - part of large land property was purchased by the state and sold in installments to peasants, who were issued loans for these purposes. State investment in the economy of the South has increased. The South became agrarian-industrial. But the modernization of the South was accompanied by rising unemployment. Southerners left for the North. There they often came to the attention of the mafia and other terrorist organizations. The mafia is a secret organization that arose at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, based on consanguinity and compatriot ties, the custom of unquestioning subordination of the younger to the elder, the weak to the strong, and the custom of blood feud.
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Political development of Italy The political course of the Christian Democratic Party and its leader De Gasperi was characterized as “centrism”, i.e. Balancing, maintaining balance between left and right. The result of this course was fluctuations between conservatism and social concessions. As a result, urgent reforms were never carried out during these years. In the 60s The Christian Democratic Party was able to establish cooperation with communists and socialists, which became known as the “left center” policy. But such cooperation caused discontent on the part of the far left - the “reds”, and the far right - the neo-fascists. In the spring of 1969, the far right began preparing for a coup d'etat. The so-called “red brigades” were formed, which carried out a series of acts of mass terror. CDA leader Aldo Moro, kidnapped by Red Brigade terrorists on the eve of his assassination in March 1978.
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Political development of Italy The growing tension in the country, caused by rampant crime, indicated that Italian society was in a deep moral and political crisis. In 1975, the PCI proposed a policy of “historical compromise” - the unity of action of communists, socialists and Catholics, i.e., essentially, national unity. This found support among the population. In 1978, a parliamentary coalition was created with the participation of communists, on which the government relied. But in the early 80s. The PCI returned to the policy of opposing the Christian Democratic Party and lost a significant part of its influence. The crisis was also contributed to by the decline in the influence of the communist idea throughout the world. In 1991, on the basis of most of the PCI, a new organization arose - the “Democratic Party of Left Forces”. Trial of members of the terrorist "red brigades"
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Political changes in Italy in the 90s. The early parliamentary elections held in March 1994 revealed the complete collapse of the previous party system. The Christian Democratic Party split into three political movements, the ISP dissolved itself, and the PCI transformed into the Democratic Party of the Left. The elections brought victory to the new bloc of heterogeneous right-wing forces “Forward, Italy!” under the leadership of millionaire S. Berlusconi. But he was caught paying bribes during his previous business activities and was put on trial. Today in Italy a new alignment of political forces is emerging. In the parliamentary elections of 1996, left-wing parties led by the Democratic Party of the Left Forces won. In 1998, the President of Italy instructed its leader Massimo d'Alema to form a government. Silvio Berlusconi As a result of the 2001 elections, S. Berlusconi formed a new government.
For Italy, World War II ended in complete defeat. The finale actually came already in 1943. The balance of the military adventure of the Italian fascists was disappointing - 450 thousand killed. Production in 1945 was only 30% of pre-war levels. There were 2 million unemployed in the country. The consequence of the acute social situation and the anti-fascist struggle was the leftward movement of Italian society. The authority of the left parties was reinforced by their active participation in the Resistance movement - the PCI numbered 1,700,000 members, the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) - 900 thousand. The General Italian Confederation of Labor (GICT, 6 million members) was under the influence of the left. Until 1947, the Communists were part of the government. Italian society itself was not marked by stability after the war. The reason for this situation was primarily the weakness of the middle class, and consequently of the Italian bourgeoisie. And only the presence of occupation troops of democratic countries and disagreements between socialists and communists prevented the latter from deciding to seize power and establish a communist dictatorship. The Catholic Church, led by the Vatican, was also a serious obstacle to totalitarianism.
The center for the consolidation of democratic forces was the Christian Democratic Party (CDP), created in 1943 on the basis of the “popolari”. Alcide de Gasperi became the leader of the party. The party, which was religiously oriented, in Catholic Italy had a fairly broad social base, which was made up of believers from different segments of the population: a significant part of the working people, intelligentsia, entrepreneurs, officials, etc. This was evidenced, in particular, by the fact that in the post-war years the party gained more votes than other political associations, was a member of all post-war governments, and in its activities and behavior was a party of the center. The interests of representatives of various social groups of Italian society converged in consensus in the CDA. The socio-political credo of the party proclaimed a market economy, private property, a parliamentary republic, democracy, cooperation with various social groups and Christianity as the highest moral law. The intentions of the Christian democrats to carry out agrarian reform and to achieve the participation of workers in the management of enterprises (including through shares and cooperative construction) received wide support among the Italian public.
In 1945, De Gasperi formed a coalition government, which over the next two years included communists and socialists. On June 18, 1946 Italy became a republic.
On February 10, 1947, the de Gasperi government signed a peace treaty with the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition, according to which Italy lost all its colonies, transferred some territories to its neighbors - France and Yugoslavia, and was forced to pay reparations to the USSR, Yugoslavia, Greece and Albania.
By May 1947, de Gasperi's government had to contain the attacks of the far left. The communists, relying on the Committees of National Liberation (CNI), which had significant influence locally, especially in the North of Italy, demanded the nationalization of large monopolies, the introduction of popular control over production through workers' management councils, the implementation of agrarian reform, and the establishment of an order of "progressive democracy". What was behind these “progressive” slogans can be seen from the words of the communist leader Palmiro Togliatti. “We want,” he said, “for Italy, like all civilized nations, to develop in the direction of socialism.”
The Italian socialists were less inclined to such a turn. Regarding tactics and program objectives in the COI, there was a struggle between two political lines, which were represented by P. Nanny and J. Saragat. The first defended the preservation of unity with the communists, declared that he shared the principles of proletarian internationalism, adhered to the party’s program guidelines formulated during the war, and advocated the solidarity of the Italian working class with the USSR, considering it the support of the socialist movement in Europe. However, part of the party led by Saragat took a moderate position. Supporting the programmatic provisions of the party majority (social reforms, the idea of a republic and the Constituent Assembly), Saragat and his supporters understood socialism as a parliamentary democratic system of the English or Scandinavian type, considering this model of “socialism” quite acceptable for Italy.
Industrial and financial circles and their parties, having secured the support of the Social Democrats, who in 1947 broke away from the ISP and formed the Italian Social Democratic Party (ISDP) led by Saragat, clearly opposed the socialization of Italy.
It should be noted that, without the knowledge of Stalin, the Italian communists, back in 1944, set a course for implementing a socialist revolution in Italy. Under the leadership of the communists in Northern Italy, the CNI, which was dominated by communists, socialists and their associates from the Action Party, confiscated and took control of enterprises whose owners were convicted under the law of purge of fascist elements. In plants and factories, management councils were created from representatives of workers and factory administration as bodies of control over capitalist production. However, the control councils were not recognized by the American military authorities and did not receive legislative approval from the Italian government. The CNIs themselves were abolished after local elections in early 1946. However, this did not stop the left, and their leader Palmiro Togliatti, as Minister of Justice, in every possible way indulged in the outrages, tyranny and violence committed by the communists in the North of Italy, especially in the “red triangle”: Modena- Bologna-Emilia. The communists, relying on forceful methods, killed former fascists, capitalists, and priests without trial or investigation, while declaring that they were fulfilling their civic duty. They acted in accordance with the ABC of their ideology, moreover, counting on the support of socialist countries. The communists, in particular, asked the Yugoslavs to help them carry out a revolution in
North of Italy. The latter refused, realizing that the Americans would not allow the left to come to power. In 1947, Stalin also gave up, having come to the conclusion that a big war for Italy would not bring success.
Nevertheless, the communists managed to accomplish a lot in terms of the nationalization of private property, since until recently 54% of property in Italy belonged to the state, which created certain difficulties in the development of the economy.
In 1947, the Communists, who categorically opposed Italy's adoption of the Marshall Plan, were forced to leave the government. This, in particular, was insisted by the American leadership, even threatening to deprive Italy of financial and economic support. The Americans already understood the futility of financing the state economy.
1. Italy after World War II.
The Resistance Movement is the main reason that Italy, an ally of Nazi Germany, has not lost its statehood. The Italians were given the right to restore the democratic regime. A multi-party system was taking shape, which was explained by the social diversity of society, historical, political reasons and ideological traditions (republicans, liberals, monarchists, socialists, etc.). From April 1944 to May 1947, a government of national unity was in power (with the participation of the PCI and other anti-fascist parties).
On June 2, 1946, a referendum was held on the question of the form of government, which brought victory to supporters of the republic.
At the same time, elections to the Constituent Assembly were held. Results: the Christian Democratic Party received 35% of the votes, the ISP - 20%, the ICP - 19%. The PCI (P. Togliatti) advocated the dictatorship of the proletariat, but recognized the possibility of a parliamentary path to a new society. The ICP has been a member of the Cominform since September 1947. The ICP collaborated with the ISP. The ISP took a class position, but opposed the dictatorship of the proletariat. The Christian Democratic Party proposed socio-economic reforms under religious slogans. The Christian Democratic Party was supported by the Vatican. Anti-communist tendencies grew in the policies of Pius XII. Domestic political life was influenced by an external factor - the Cold War. The rise of the far right was evidenced by the emergence of the Italian Social Movement.
In 1947, a new constitution was adopted - the constitution of a parliamentary republic. The head of state, the president, was elected by parliament (the chamber of deputies with the senate). Both chambers were elected by proportional representation. Women received the right to vote for the first time. In addition to political rights, the Constitution declared social rights (to work, etc.). It came into force on January 1, 1948.
2. Domestic and foreign policy of the de Gasper government. The crisis of the “center” policy.
In May 1947, not without US intervention, the communists were removed from the government. In April 1948, in the first parliamentary elections, the Christian Democratic Party came out on top (48% of the votes), the PCI and the ISP received 31%. The government was headed by De Gasperi (CDA). It included the Christian Democratic Party, Liberals and Republicans.
In the 50-60s. there is an "Italian economic miracle". Over the course of 2 decades, the country has transformed from an agrarian-industrial state into a developed industrial state. Reasons: elimination of the corporate system, autarky, US assistance under the Marshall Plan, use of scientific and technological progress, entry into the EEC, relatively low military spending. The state played an important role in the economy. Iran is one of the centers for introducing the latest technologies.
Regional specifics were preserved: the North-West - large industry with advanced technology, the North-East and Center - small and medium-sized firms with traditional production (ceramics, clothing, shoes), the South - a backward, stagnant region. Hence - democracy in the North, clientelism and mafia in the South, corruption, terrorism, crime, and the introduction of the mafia into politics.
In the post-war years (1948 - 1962), the dominant role of the Christian Democratic Party was revealed and maintained, receiving 45 - 50% of the votes in the elections. Liberals, Republicans and others were a virtual appendage of the CDA. The Christian Democratic Party represented a centrist movement. To the right of her stood the ISD (neo-fascists) and monarchists, to the left were the IKP and ISP.
The “centrism” of the Christian Democratic Party was expressed in a balancing act, an oscillation between social conservatism and social concessions. The government was headed from 1948 to 1953 by A. De Gasperi. The ideas of paternalism were introduced at enterprises. In 1950, 3 private agrarian laws were adopted for the Center, South and Sicily. Most of the latifundia were liquidated, but the agrarian issue as a whole was not resolved. A law was adopted to create a “South treasury” - financing public works to create infrastructure.
In 1949 -1952. There is a movement of workers against the curtailment of unprofitable enterprises, “reverse strikes,” and seizures of landowners’ lands by peasants. Reprisals against demonstrators and the use of motorized police are the Christian Democratic Party's response to workers' protests.
A split occurs in the CGIL: back in 1948, a free confederation of Italian workers was created (since 1950 - ICPT), in 1950 - IST.
In foreign policy there is a rapprochement with the United States. Since April 1949, Italy has been a member of NATO. US military bases are located on its territory.
The electoral law of 1952, which gave the right to the party (bloc) receiving 50% + 1 vote to have 2/3 of the seats in parliament, was defeated on June 7, 1953.
The center's policy was in crisis. There was a struggle in ruling circles - for reforms or for an attack on the positions of the “left forces”. From August 1953 to June 1955, the right wing of the Christian Democratic Party was in power; from July 1955 to 1960, the moderate wing was in power. Police repressions and the trial of the murder of the girl V. Montesi revealed a picture of corruption in the ruling circles of the Christian Democratic Party. Police censorship in the field of art is intensifying, and state institutions are being “cleansed” of PCI members. Moderate governments (1955-1960) passed legislation making it easier to remove tenants from the land.
Against the background of the decline of the labor movement, the COI broke the unity pact with the PCI in October 1956, replacing it with an agreement on mutual consultations.
The VIII Congress of the PCI adopted theses “on the Italian path to socialism” - through the struggle for democracy, “structural reforms”.
In Italian foreign policy there are: support for Germany's entry into NATO, Italy's entry into the EEC (1957), revitalization of trade relations with the USSR.
Spring 1960 - creation of a one-party government headed by F. Tambroni (CDA). It tried to rely on an alliance with the ISD, which caused discontent among the left wing of the Christian Democratic Party and the democratic opposition. Dissatisfaction with Tambroni's policies intensified when neo-fascists tried to hold an ISD congress in Genoa, the city awarded the gold medal of the Resistance. The nationwide protest led to the formation of a 4-party cabinet of A. Fanfani (CDA, liberals, republicans, social democrats) - a transition cabinet to the “center-left” coalition. The government allocated funds for agriculture and provided loans to large farmers.
On February 21, 1962, the cabinet of A. Fanfani was created on the basis of the alliance of the Christian Democratic Party with the Social Democratic Party, the Republicans. The cabinet indirectly supported the ISP. The government carried out a number of reforms that extended pensions to peasants, farm laborers, and housewives, and funds were allocated for free medical care.
3. Transition to a policy of “centre-leftism”. The crisis of the “centre-left” in the mid-70s, the murder of Aldo Moro.
After the elections of 1963, the center-left government of A. Moro was created (an alliance of the Christian Democratic Party - the center with the ISP - the left). The entry of Nenni and Lombardi (ISP) into the government caused a split in the ISP. In January 1964, the left wing of the ISP formed the ISPPE. Since 1966, the ISP has merged with the SDP to form the OSP (headed by P. Nenni). 1969 - split of the OSP - formation of the USP. ISPPE merged with IKP in 1964.
The governments of the “left center” acted in conditions of the end of the “economic miracle”. The nationalization of the entire electric power industry was carried out (1962 - 1965). In 1967, a five-year plan was introduced. Construction of the “Motorway of the Sun” has begun. In the late 60s and early 70s, a new law on social security was adopted, and in 1972 a marriage law was adopted, allowing divorce. Opposition to the law arose within the Christian Democratic Party. The law on regional administration was adopted (1970).
In foreign policy, the “Atlantic course” continued, but ties with the USSR expanded (construction of an automobile plant in Togliatti, participation in the construction of 7 large enterprises in the USSR, etc.). Italy signed the Helsinki Final Act on August 1, 1975.
The response to the policy of the “left center” was the intensification of the terrorist activities of the ISD and the mafia. Corruption in the ruling circles of the Christian Democratic Party has increased. In 1975, representatives of the COI left the government. The Center Left has collapsed. The essence of the crisis of the center-left: Italy, without the participation of the main left force - the PCI, could not solve complex social problems.
In the June 1976 elections, the PCI received 34.4% of the vote, almost as much as the CDA (35%). The leader of the Christian Democratic Party, A. Moro, put forward the idea of a “third option” (i.e., after centrism and center-leftism), which assumed the participation of the PCI in governing the country. The ICP expressed the idea of a “historical compromise” (search for allies in the left wing of the Christian Democratic Party).
In June 1977, an agreement was signed between 6 parties. Representatives of the PCI did not enter the government, but supported it.
The policy of resolving the political crisis was disrupted by the provocation of leftist organizations - the “red brigades”: the kidnapping of A. Moreau on March 16, 1978 and his murder on May 5, 1978.
A government crisis arose. The government resigned. The ICP went into opposition. Subsequent numerous governments were formed on the basis of coalitions of 5 parties, without the participation of the PCI.
Late 70's - early 80's. were marked by a deepening political crisis, a wave of terrorism (the kidnapping of judicial officials, the murder of a Carabinieri general, an explosion at the Bologna train station, the case of the Masonic lodge P-2), and government inaction during the 1980 earthquake.
In foreign policy - orientation towards NATO, support for the deployment of "Euromissiles" in Italy, but maintaining economic relations with the USSR.
4. Social and economic development of Italy in the 80-90s. Growing constitutional crisis.
The Christian Democratic Party lost its monopoly on government formation. In 1981, the right to form a government was entrusted to the leader of the Republicans E. Spadolini, and in 1983 to the socialist B. Craxi.
In the 80s The positions of big business are strengthening (the Agnelli, de Beneditti clans, etc.). Medium and small firms remain the backbone of the economy. The economy is being modernized on the basis of technological restructuring. This caused social change. In the old industrial triangle Milan-Turin-Genoa, where the industrial proletariat was concentrated, now it is less than 40%. For every person employed in industry, there are 2 people in the service sector. “Menial employment” and “dual workers” are common. The problem of the South persists. The association of industrialists "Kondindustria" put forward the slogan "Less state, less industry, fewer trade unions!" Governments began to slow down the rollout of social programs.
Relations with the Vatican developed on the basis of the 1984 concordat.
In the field of foreign policy, the government supported the US policy of worsening relations with the USSR and the SDI program. Later, the “perestroika” of M.S. was supported. Gorbachev, a number of documents were signed with the Soviet leadership.
In the 80s - early 90s. The political influence of traditional parties has decreased. The ICP dissolved itself in 1991 and on the basis of the ICP the DPLS and the Party of Communist Transformation were formed. In 1992, President F. Cossiga resigned. The 1992 parliamentary elections showed the decline of the main political parties, including the Christian Democratic Party and the ISP.
5. Restructuring of the party-political system in the 90s. Italian foreign policy at the present stage.
In February 1992, the “Clean Hands” campaign was launched in the country, which revealed massive facts of corruption in the highest echelons of power and the leadership of the main parties. 20 thousand people were included in the investigative lists. Since February 1992, over 2 years, 2,600 people were arrested on charges of bribery (including former prime ministers G. Andreotti, B. Craxi, and members of parliament). The trial about connections between the highest echelons of power and the mafia shocked society. The collapse of the party-political system created in the wake of the Resistance began. In 1993, the Italian People's Party was created on the basis of the Christian Democratic Party. The ISP dissolved itself. The parliamentary elections in March 1994 revealed the collapse of the previous party system. New and unknown groups took over: “Forward, Italy!” (S. Berlusconi), "Northern League" (U. Bossi), "National Alliance" - an association of neo-fascists and right-wing nationalists. These parties created the Pole of Freedom bloc. Left parties created the Alliance of Progressive Forces.
The government was formed by S. Berlusconi on the basis of a coalition with the Northern League and the National Alliance. The government lasted only until the end of 1994. W. Bossi broke with the prime minister, and Berlusconi himself, who had announced the fight against corruption, was exposed for violating tax rules and resigned.
The new, 53rd government of Italy was created on a non-partisan basis (the head is the independent candidate La Dini). It consisted of “technical ministers” and intended to implement a center-left program.
Since 1996, a center-left coalition has been in power - the Olive Tree bloc and the Communist Transformation Party. The bloc, however, had disagreements on budget issues related to an attempt to change the social security system. The arrest of the leaders of a number of mafia groups attracted public support.
The separatist movement of U. Bossi for the creation of the “Republic of Padania” in the North intensified. The government of R. Prodi was unable to overcome internal differences and, having lost its parliamentary majority, resigned (1998).
M. D'Alema (DPLS) became Prime Minister. In Italy, a grand coalition experiment began, involving Social Democrats and conservative Christian Democrats, who must balance each other and act on the basis of a joint program. D'Alema proposed reducing unemployment, which had been at 12%. To ensure support from the PKP, the Prime Minister promised to introduce a 35-hour working week, and to the former Christian Democrats - funding for private Catholic schools.
On April 16, 2000, right-wing forces won partial administrative elections in 8 regions, including all northern ones. The increase in crime in large cities and the fear of an influx of immigrants had an impact: most of the promises of the left turned out to be on paper: the effect of Operation Clean Hands ceased to have an effect on public opinion: the Catholic Church openly supported the right. M. D'Alema handed President Azamo Ciampi his resignation after 18 months in power. The transitional government was entrusted to be headed by the Minister of the Treasury, Budget and Economic Planning Giuliano Amato (former Socialist).
In May 2001 The center-right coalition led by S. Berlusconi won the parliamentary elections.
In foreign policy, Italian leaders supported the transformation of the European Community. Italy signed the Maastricht Treaty. During B. N. Yeltsin’s visit to Italy, the question of establishing diplomatic relations between Russia and this country was raised. Italy provided Russia with a loan for the purchase of food.
Meetings of the new President of the Russian Federation V.V. Putin with the leaders of Italy, with Pope John Paul II in June 2000, contributed to the development of Italian-Russian relations and relations between Moscow and the Vatican.
Italy approached the 20th century as a capitalist country in which Italian imperialism began to take shape.
By the end of the 19th century, Italy was already a unified state. Italy was fragmented for a long time and consisted of numerous city-states. On its territory there were states (kingdoms) under the rule of France and Austria. Rome was under the rule of the popes.
This made it possible to create a single national market, eliminate customs barriers between individual regions, introduce a unified monetary system, and accelerate the development of industry and its branches such as cotton, wool, mining, metallurgy, and engineering. There were still many artisans and handicraft enterprises in the country. The development of industry led to an increase in population in cities.
Domestic and foreign banks and railway companies began to appear in the country. The construction of railways began, the highway network grew, and the volume of maritime transport and the tonnage of the merchant fleet increased.
Capitalism also penetrated into agriculture. Large landowner farms have survived in Italy. Agriculture in the northern provinces of Italy was more progressive. Machines and agricultural technology were used here, and products were produced for export: rice, meat and dairy products, and wine. In the southern agricultural regions, low-productivity peasant labor was used, so agricultural products were not competitive.
One of the leading problems for the development of the Italian economy has been the large migration of the population to other countries of the world, especially from the southern provinces. Internal migration, from the southern to the northern provinces, also remained a big problem in the country.
The development of various industries, the construction of industrial enterprises, the growth of cities, and the ruin of the peasants led to the growth of the industrial and agricultural proletariat. By the beginning of the 20th century, there were over 1 million industrial workers and about 2.5 million rural proletarians in the country. There was no social legislation in Italy. There was brutal exploitation of labor not only of men, but also of women and children: the working day lasted 15-16 hours, the natural payment system was maintained, forced purchase of products in the entrepreneur’s shop was practiced, etc. The standard of living of the working people was very low.
Thus, at the end of the 19th century, Italy was still an agricultural country. And a capitalist state in which the industrial revolution took place. A proletariat of workers and peasants was formed in the country. The first political organizations appeared: the IRP and the ISP. Italy had colonies in Northeast Africa. According to its political system, it was a kingdom.
1. Italy after the Second World War (1945-1999)
The fascist dictatorship existed in Italy for twenty years. This period was called the "Black Twenties". The fascist dictatorship and the war inflicted deep wounds on Italy: hundreds of thousands of young people died or became disabled, equipment from many enterprises, works of art, etc. were taken out of the country. Italy has lost a third of its national wealth. There was a shortage of food in the country, which caused speculation and the “black market”, inflation was growing rapidly, unemployment hit almost two million people, the country was occupied by Anglo-American troops. At this time, it was necessary to resolve the issue of the country's state structure.
After the war, Italy was still a monarchy. King Victor Emmanuel III, who had been on the throne since 1900, transferred power to Mussolini in the early 1920s and supported the fascists, which caused discontent among the people.
According to the constitution, legislative power in the country belongs to parliament, elected for five years by universal suffrage. Parliament consists of two chambers: the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. The government is headed by a representative of the party that received the largest number of votes in the parliamentary elections. He also forms the entire government. The President is elected at a joint meeting of both chambers for a term of seven years.
Thus, already in the first post-war years, Italy became a republic (1946), in which a new constitution was in force (1948).
After the war, Italy needed financial assistance, which was promised to it by the United States, provided that there were no communists or socialists in the government. That's why they were removed from the government in 1947. Initially, food products were imported into Italy, and then the import of industrial equipment began. The total volume of supplies under the Marshall Plan initially amounted to $1.5 billion, and the United States controlled the expenditure of incoming funds. Subsequently, US financial assistance amounted to over $3 billion. Internal funds were also used to restore the Italian economy.
Rapid economic growth in the 50-60s allowed Italy to enter the seven most advanced industrial states in the world. They began to talk about Italy as a “land of prosperity.” However, since the late 60s, the economic situation has been deteriorating: the “economic miracle” has passed, the growth rate of the Italian economy has slowed, and in the mid-70s Italy found itself in the grip of a global economic crisis. Production growth almost completely stopped, prices rose, the number of unemployed increased, and the foreign trade deficit increased. All this required a structural restructuring of production: the introduction of high-tech technologies, energy-saving materials, the use of microprocessors, robots, computer science, and automation of control systems. This led to Italy beginning to emerge from the crisis. An economic recovery began that lasted until the 90s.
A feature of the political life of Italy is its instability. Economic crises are combined with political crises. Italy is a multi-party country.
Italy entered the 1990s as a developed industrial power, ranking fifth in the capitalist world in terms of gross domestic product (GDP). Mechanical engineering has become one of the leading sectors of its economy.
The Italian economy is characterized by the dominance of monopoly capital, as well as the participation of foreign capital. There are many state associations and private monopolies in the country.
Italy ranks sixth in world trade. It entered global markets as a major exporter of automobiles, furniture, building materials, agricultural machinery, ready-made garments, footwear, electrical appliances, medical equipment, as well as fruits and wines. Italy produces 4 thousand industrial robots annually.
Thus, Italy entered the 20th century as an agrarian country. In this century, it has passed its economic path from agrarian to agrarian-industrial, industrial and entered the post-industrial period of its development. A feature of its economy is the dominance of monopoly capital in the form of state and private monopolies. Throughout the 20th century, the Italian economy experienced both global economic crises and production declines associated with internal reasons.
A characteristic feature of Italy is the high activity of workers in defending their rights and freedoms, which is expressed in the strike movement, which intensifies during years of social upheaval (crises, wars, etc.). The workers put forward not only economic, but also political demands, which is still observed today.
A political feature of Italy is its multi-party system, with instability and frequent splits within parties, which leads to frequent political crises and is accompanied by changes in government cabinet.
Italy is a country where terrorism and mafia flourish, and the fight against these phenomena has not yet been successful. In terms of the scale of corruption, Italy has no equal in the world.
There are friendly partnership relations between Russia and Italy. Trade and economic cooperation is expanding. In April 2002 During the visit of Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi to Moscow, a protocol of mutual understanding in the field of technical cooperation was signed, as well as a memorandum of understanding between the relevant space institutes of the two countries on joint research in the field of space.
